CULTIVATE HISTORY

The Metternich System The Metternich System was a conservative political order established in Europe after the Congress of Vienna in 1815, with the Austrian statesman Prince Klemens von Metternich as its chief architect. After the fall of Napoleon, Europe was plunged into political uncertainty and instability, and the primary objective of this system was to restore the old monarchical order and re-establish a balance of power. Metternich believed that the ideals of the French Revolution—nationalism, liberalism, and democracy—posed the greatest threat to peace and stability in Europe. Consequently, he strongly advocated the restoration of the pre-revolutionary “Old Order” (Ancien Régime). In practice, the Metternich System functioned as a well-organized conservative and repressive mechanism of political control, aimed at suppressing all forms of revolutionary, nationalist, and liberal movements at their very outset. Metternich was convinced that such ideologies endangered Europe’s monar...

  সন্ত্রাসের রাজত্ব  ফরাসি বিপ্লবের ইতিহাসে সন্ত্রাসের রাজত্ব (১৭৯৩–১৭৯৪) এক ভয়াবহ ও বিতর্কিত অধ্যায়। এই পর্যায়ে বিপ্লবের ঘোষিত আদর্শ—স্বাধীনতা, সাম্য ও ভ্রাতৃত্ব—বাস্তবে ভয়, সন্দেহ ও সহিংসতার মাধ্যমে কার্যকর করা হয়। অভ্যন্তরীণ বিদ্রোহ, বৈদেশিক আক্রমণের আশঙ্কা এবং বিপ্লব-বিরোধী শক্তির উত্থানের প্রেক্ষাপটে বিপ্লবী সরকার কঠোর দমননীতির আশ্রয় নেয়। এই সময়েই বিপ্লব তার সবচেয়ে চরম ও রক্তক্ষয়ী রূপ ধারণ করে। ১৭৯২ সালে ফ্রান্সে রাজতন্ত্রের পতন ও প্রজাতন্ত্র প্রতিষ্ঠার পর দেশটি গভীর সংকটে পড়ে। একদিকে অস্ট্রিয়া, প্রুশিয়া, ইংল্যান্ডসহ ইউরোপীয় শক্তিগুলি বিপ্লব দমন করার জন্য ফ্রান্সের বিরুদ্ধে যুদ্ধ ঘোষণা করে; অন্যদিকে দেশের অভ্যন্তরে রাজতন্ত্রপন্থী, গির্জা সমর্থক এবং প্রাদেশিক বিদ্রোহ (বিশেষত ভঁদে অঞ্চলে) বিপ্লবী সরকারের অস্তিত্বকে বিপন্ন করে তোলে। এই দ্বিমুখী সংকট মোকাবিলার জন্য বিপ্লবীরা মনে করেন যে কঠোর ও তাৎক্ষণিক ব্যবস্থা গ্রহণ ছাড়া বিপ্লব রক্ষা করা সম্ভব নয়। এই সময়ে জ্যাকোবিন দল বিপ্লবী রাজনীতিতে প্রাধান্য বিস্তার করে। ১৭৯৩ সালে জনকল্যাণ কমিটি (Committee of Public Sa...

Foreign Policy of Napoleon III When the French Emperor Napoleon III ascended the throne, he proclaimed his empire to be a champion of peace. In reality, however, during his reign, France became involved in three major European wars—the Crimean War, the war against Austria, and the war against Prussia—and on at least one occasion, he sent troops as far away as Mexico in an attempt to establish French rule there. Thus, despite his rhetoric of peace, aggression remained a defining feature of his foreign policy. Napoleon III’s foreign policy, which drew him into so many wars, cannot be reduced to any single, clear-cut formula. Most likely, his overriding ambition was to enhance France’s importance in international relations by any means possible and to place it at the centre of European diplomacy. He did not wish to turn Britain into an enemy; rather, he hoped to have Britain as an ally in dismantling the European state system established in 1815. Napoleon believed that the mutual intolera...

Role of Women in the French Revolution The French Revolution of 1789 was a landmark event in world history, promising liberty, equality, and fraternity. While it is often narrated through the actions of male leaders, assemblies, and armies, women also played a significant and complex role in the revolutionary process. Their participation ranged from mass protests and political writings to social welfare, cultural production, and even armed struggle. However, despite their immense contributions, women were largely excluded from formal political power, and the Revolution ultimately revealed a strong anti-feminist tendency. The role of women in the French Revolution must therefore be understood as both active and paradoxical—marked by participation, sacrifice, and repression. From the very beginning of the Revolution, women emerged as a powerful collective force, especially among the urban poor. One of the most dramatic early revolutionary actions was the March to Versailles on 5 October ...

The Treaty of Vienna The post-Napoleonic world order was determined at the Congress of Vienna in 1815. Even before the wars against Napoleon had ended, four major European powers opposed to him—Britain, Russia, Austria, and Prussia—had entered into a Quadruple Alliance. The main objective of this alliance was to maintain unity among themselves for the next twenty years to ensure that France would comply with all the conditions of the peace settlement. After the end of the war, diplomats from these four powers, along with those from defeated France, met in Vienna, the capital of Austria. At the Congress of Vienna, three main principles were formulated: The principle of territorial redistribution and compensation, The principle of legitimacy, and The principle of balance of power. The principle of territorial redistribution and compensation meant that the powers which had played a significant role in defeating Napoleon would be rewarded, while those that had supported Napoleon would be p...

The Movement for German Unification and Bismarck One of the most significant political events in nineteenth-century Europe was the rise of German nationalism and the unification of Germany through the expansion of Prussia under the leadership of Bismarck. Germany had long remained a fragmented territory under Austrian dominance. Thereafter came Napoleon’s conquest of Germany; following Napoleon’s fall, Austrian supremacy and the old order were restored. Strong nationalist sentiments grew, and finally, Germany was unified through Bismarck’s policy of “blood and iron.” Even long before Napoleon’s conquest, German nationalism had begun to develop against Austrian domination. Napoleon’s occupation, however, gave Germany its first taste of unity, while at the same time protests against foreign rule flared up against Napoleon. After Napoleon’s fall, the Congress of Vienna (1815) ignored German nationalism and once again divided Germany into thirty-nine small states, forming the German Confed...

Background of the Russian Revolution and the Role of Lenin The Russian Revolution of 1917 was the most significant event in the world during and after the First World War. Through this revolution, the Bolsheviks under the leadership of Lenin succeeded in establishing socialism in Russia. As a result of the Industrial Revolution, a working class emerged in Russia, which in Marxist philosophy is known as the proletariat. In 1905, there was a massive uprising against Tsarist rule, though it was suppressed. Later, in 1917, a widespread struggle began against Tsarism, which could no longer be contained. To understand the background of the Revolution of 1917, one must begin with the mass movement of 1905. Lenin himself described the Revolution of 1905 as the “dress rehearsal” of the Russian Revolution. In the mid-1880s, the Industrial Revolution reached Russia and expanded rapidly. The number of factories increased sharply, most of which were owned by foreigners (mainly British and French). ...

Social Stratification of France on the Eve of the French Revolution One of the most significant events in European history at the end of the eighteenth century was the French Revolution. It is regarded not only as a turning point in European history but also as a landmark in the history of modern civilization. Through this revolution, ideas such as nationalism, the concept of the sovereign state, the right of national self-determination, individual liberty, and the attempt to regulate the state through a constitution instead of arbitrary rule began to gain recognition in Europe. Historian Georges Lefebvre remarked that the causes of the French Revolution were deeply rooted in the history of France and Western Europe. A close examination of pre-revolutionary French society reveals that it was organized into several unequal social strata. Under the Old Regime, society was divided into three Estates—Clergy, Nobility, and Commoners. The entire structure was feudal in nature, and resentment...

K ulturkampf The unification of Germany and the process of state-building under Protestant Prussian leadership became objectionable to the Catholic states of southern Germany. The spread of scientific consciousness throughout Europe gave rise to hostility toward the Church at various levels. Moreover, the growth of socialism and communism weakened the foundations of the Church. Consequently, from this period onward, the Church attempted to obstruct this new consciousness and promote a religious revival. In the German context, this created complications because political developments in Germany were closely intertwined with religious awakening. The phase of Catholic revival had begun as early as the time of the French Revolution, when the Church had suffered its first major setback. In 1864, Pope Pius IX issued the  Syllabus of Errors , declaring modern civilization to be erroneous. In 1870, the Pope was proclaimed infallible. In protest against these declarations, a group of Roman ...