ফরাসি বিপ্লবের প্রাক্কালে ফ্রান্সের সামাজিক স্তরবিন্যাস | Social Stratification in Pre-Revolution France
ফরাসি বিপ্লবের প্রাক্কালে ফ্রান্সের সামাজিক স্তরবিন্যাস
Social Stratification of France on the Eve of the French Revolution
One of the most significant events in European history at the end of the eighteenth century was the French Revolution. It is regarded not only as a turning point in European history but also as a landmark in the history of modern civilization. Through this revolution, ideas such as nationalism, the concept of the sovereign state, the right of national self-determination, individual liberty, and the attempt to regulate the state through a constitution instead of arbitrary rule began to gain recognition in Europe. Historian Georges Lefebvre remarked that the causes of the French Revolution were deeply rooted in the history of France and Western Europe. A close examination of pre-revolutionary French society reveals that it was organized into several unequal social strata. Under the Old Regime, society was divided into three Estates—Clergy, Nobility, and Commoners. The entire structure was feudal in nature, and resentment had long been accumulating among the lower classes against the privileged upper classes.
The First Estate consisted of the clergy, who were the most privileged group in society. They were part of the Church administration and were exempt from compulsory taxation; instead, they paid a voluntary contribution. On the contrary, they collected the religious tax known as the tithe. The Church owned vast landed property—nearly one-tenth of the total land of France. Many bishops and church officials lived like feudal lords. They enjoyed a separate judicial system. The clergy also had certain social responsibilities, such as managing local education, providing charity to the poor, maintaining records of births and deaths, and engaging in other welfare activities. It should be noted that the term “Church” here refers exclusively to the Catholic Church, as Protestants had not yet received state recognition.
There were internal divisions within the clergy. Bishops, abbots, and canons formed the higher clergy, who were more interested in luxury than in religious duties. In contrast, the parish priests and lower church officials lived in miserable conditions and were often despised by the higher clergy. Many among the lower clergy came into close contact with the Third Estate and later joined the revolutionary movement.
Next to the clergy stood the Nobility, another privileged class under the Old Regime. Though they constituted only about 2% of the population, they controlled nearly 60% of the agricultural land. They were largely exempt from taxation, though they monopolized high offices in the army, navy, and parliaments (law courts). While they did not pay taxes like the Third Estate, they imposed various feudal dues on peasants living on their estates. They exercised absolute authority over judicial matters, law and order, hunting rights, and the establishment of mills and wine presses within their domains.
The nobility, too, was divided. Court nobles were the wealthiest and most powerful and resided in the Palace of Versailles. In contrast, provincial or rural nobles were relatively poor and had almost descended to the level of prosperous peasants. Rising prices during the eighteenth century placed many nobles under financial strain, forcing them to borrow money to maintain their luxurious lifestyle. During the reign of Louis XVI, a new class of nobles emerged, known as the “nobles of the robe.” To overcome financial crises, the king sold noble titles, which were purchased by wealthy bourgeois. Lacking noble lineage, these nobles were socially inferior to the traditional “blue-blooded” nobility and were often treated with envy and contempt.
Out of a population of about 25 million, nearly 24 million people belonged to the Third Estate. This Estate included the bourgeoisie, peasants, artisans, and the sans-culottes. The bourgeoisie were the wealthiest and most educated group within the Third Estate. They were a heterogeneous group engaged in various professions and could be divided into upper, middle, and lower sections. The upper bourgeoisie were few in number but extremely wealthy, lived mostly in cities, and adopted aristocratic lifestyles. Kings and nobles often borrowed money from them, and many among them became nobles of the robe. The lower bourgeoisie consisted of small artisans and shopkeepers who were often exploited by the upper bourgeoisie. Between these two groups stood the middle bourgeoisie—moderately wealthy but highly educated professionals such as lawyers, doctors, teachers, journalists, and actors. They played a crucial role in spreading revolutionary consciousness among the lower classes.
The majority of France’s population consisted of peasants, who bore the heaviest tax burden. They had to pay land tax (taille), tithe to the Church, feudal dues for hunting and fishing rights, taxes for public works, and fees for using mills and wine presses. Although a section of peasants was prosperous, nearly 50% were sharecroppers who cultivated Church or noble lands and received only half of the produce. About 25% were agricultural laborers, and nearly 5% were serfs. Agriculture remained backward and heavily dependent on nature. Population growth led to the fragmentation of landholdings. The eighteenth-century economic crisis severely affected peasants, as landlords increased exploitation to maintain their standard of living.
A proper industrial working class had not yet emerged in France. Although mechanized industry had begun, its progress was slow. Many artisans were engaged in cottage and handicraft industries, but they lacked unity and organization. However, in urban areas, a new group known as the sans-culottes emerged. During the eighteenth century, many people migrated from villages to cities, working as daily laborers, porters, water carriers, gardeners, and servants. They had no social status or formal education and lived in unhealthy urban conditions.
On the eve of the Revolution, the sans-culottes were in the worst condition. Between 1730 and 1789, food prices in France rose by about 60%, while wages increased by only 22%. Nearly 75% of their daily income was spent on bread alone. The sans-culottes played the most radical and destructive role in the French Revolution. They were the main force behind the storming of the Bastille. From looting bread carts to organizing hunger marches on the streets, they led mass actions and demanded price controls and employment.
Thus, the above discussion clearly shows that pre-revolutionary French society had reached the extreme limits of inequality. A small minority monopolized wealth, privileges, rights, and social prestige without bearing corresponding responsibilities. In contrast, the vast majority of the population lived in poverty, deprivation, and humiliation. This inequality generated deep resentment and gave rise to class consciousness, ultimately mobilizing the masses in favor of radical transformation.
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