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The Treaty of Versailles
The First World War lasted for four years, from 1914 to 1918. On 28 June 1919, at the Paris Peace Conference, a treaty was signed between Germany and the victorious powers; this treaty is known as the Treaty of Versailles. The Treaty of Versailles brought about enormous changes in the political map of Europe. The principal roles at the Paris Peace Conference were played by the United States, Britain, and France. Emphasizing the ideals of peace, democracy, and human rights embodied in U.S. President Woodrow Wilson’s Fourteen Points, the terms of the Treaty of Versailles were formulated. However, how far these ideals were actually followed is a matter of discussion.
Germany had been reassured by Wilson’s Fourteen Points. But at the Paris Peace Conference, the Allied Powers in reality displayed a spirit of revenge against Germany. Hatred toward the defeated enemy, the desire to extract reparations, greed for its colonies, and fear of Bolshevism greatly influenced Allied actions. Their main objective was to weaken Germany and restore the balance of power in Europe. While, on the basis of Wilson’s idealism, the League of Nations was established to preserve world peace, at the same time, driven by opportunistic policies, Germany was held unilaterally responsible for the war, efforts were made to extract reparations from her, and attempts were undertaken to seize her colonies. German representatives were treated like prisoners of war, and their opinions and objections were largely ignored. They were virtually forced, through pressure and intimidation, to accept the terms of the treaty. This treaty generated deep frustration in German public opinion, which later accelerated the rise of fascism in Germany.
According to the treaty terms, Germany ceded Alsace and Lorraine to France; Moresnet, Eupen, and Malmedy to Belgium; and the port of Memel to Lithuania. Posen and parts of West Prussia were given to Poland. Danzig was turned into an international free port under the responsibility of the League of Nations. The Polish Corridor was created through German territory. Control over the mineral-rich Saar region was placed under the League of Nations, while France was granted the right to control its economy. All German colonies (about one million square miles) were taken away by the Allied Powers and placed under the League of Nations mandate system, ostensibly to establish an impartial and just administration as envisaged by Wilson. Germany’s colonies in China were given to Japan. The Pacific colonies went to Australia and New Zealand. Colonies such as South-West Africa, East Africa, Cameroon, and Togoland were divided between Britain and France.
Germany’s military strength was drastically reduced. It was decided that Germany could not maintain an army of more than 100,000 soldiers. Compulsory military service was abolished. The Rhineland was demilitarized and occupied by Allied troops. Germany’s navy was dismantled; only a small fleet, a few small warships, and torpedo boats were permitted. The artillery was reduced, and German military bases at Heligoland were destroyed. Restrictions were also imposed on German military commanders and armaments. Notably, Wilson’s ideal had spoken of general disarmament, but in practice this ideal was applied only to Germany. None of the Allied Powers reduced their own armaments.
Germany was held unilaterally responsible for the war, and Kaiser Wilhelm II was blamed for it. It was alleged that he had started the war in violation of international law and morality. The Kaiser fled to the Netherlands. Twelve Germans were declared war criminals and arrangements were made to punish them.
Extending the war-guilt clause, the Allied countries held Germany responsible for all kinds of losses suffered by them and demanded reparations. A commission was formed which ordered Germany to pay 37 billion dollars in reparations, to be paid through coal, ships, railways, and other means. Germany refused to accept this demand, because on the one hand its territory, colonies, resources, and merchant ships had been seized and it had been weakened, and on the other hand it was decided that until the reparations were paid, the Rhineland would remain under Allied control.
The Treaty of Versailles recognized the independence of Poland and Czechoslovakia. However, it was declared that Germany and Austria could not form a customs union or unite with each other. Germany’s earlier treaties in the interests of Russia and Romania were annulled. German waterways were opened for international navigation. A decision was taken to establish the League of Nations as an international organization.
To Germany, the Treaty of Versailles was a coercive and humiliating treaty. Although Germany surrendered, reassured by Wilson’s ideals, it was not treated fairly. The terms of the treaty were imposed upon the German representatives without seeking their opinions, and their objections were ignored. Under the treaty, Germany lost 25,000 square miles of territory, 7 million people, 15% of its agricultural land, and 12% of its industrial areas. Its colonies were taken away and Allied dominance was established there. Consequently, from the very beginning, a tendency to reject and defy the treaty developed in German public opinion.
Germany’s military strength was destroyed and reduced to a level even lower than that of small countries like Belgium, and foreign troops were stationed in the Rhineland. Although Wilson’s ideals spoke of disarmament in all countries, in practice no country other than Germany was disarmed.
The enormous burden of reparations imposed by holding Germany solely responsible for the war was to be met by exporting coal, iron, zinc, lead, potash, and food grains. As a result, Germany experienced severe inflation, food shortages, and unemployment.
Wilson’s ideal of self-determination was violated. Poland was given the Polish Corridor through German territory, and parts of Silesia were handed over to Poland. German-populated areas were attached to other states. The principle of international river navigation was also applied only in Germany’s case. In fact, Hitler later exploited all these grievances to propagate Nazism, and the treaty is considered in many respects responsible for the outbreak of the Second World War.
Historian E. H. Carr commented that a certain degree of coercion is present in all peace treaties. However, the element of coercion was particularly strong in the Treaty of Versailles. In this case, an excessive fear of Germany among the Allied Powers played a role. They wanted to cripple Germany in such a way that it would never be able to rise again in the future. Significantly, it was this excessive punishment that ultimately became the cause of the treaty’s failure.
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