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The Peace of Westphalia
The seventeenth century was a period of continuous warfare in Europe, with religion often used as the primary pretext. Among these, the most devastating was the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648), a brutal religious conflict. The Peace of Westphalia not only ended this prolonged war but also aimed to resolve Europe's broader religious disputes. The treaty had two key aspects: firstly, determining the future of the Holy Roman Empire, including Germany; and secondly, safeguarding the interests of other European powers involved in the war.
Within the empire, the primary issue was the religious alignment of the constituent states. It was decided that the religious status of any region as it stood in 1624 would remain permanent, even if the ruler later changed their own faith. Equality between Catholics and Protestants was to be maintained within the empire. Although Calvinism was not given separate recognition, it was accepted as a legitimate form of Protestantism. If religious matters were discussed in the Imperial Diet (central parliament), the followers of the two major denominations would deliberate separately, and a law would be passed only if both sides agreed. This meant either side could effectively veto any legislation. Even the emperor would now require the Diet’s approval to impose taxes or raise an army.
The system of electing the Holy Roman Emperor, as it existed before 1618, was reinstated. The ruler of the Palatinate was restored to his domain and regained his status as an elector. However, part of the Palatinate was given to Maximilian of Bavaria, who also received elector status. Thus, one new Catholic and one Protestant elector were established to maintain religious parity.
The primary goal of the assembled representatives at Westphalia was to ensure the security of German rulers both within and beyond the empire. Efforts were made to balance the interests of various states—for instance, Pomerania was divided between Sweden and Brandenburg. German rulers were recognized as virtually sovereign within their own territories. They could levy taxes, maintain armies, and conduct diplomacy independently, although these powers could not be used against the emperor.
Despite these changes, the emperor retained significant authority. It was confirmed that imperial law would apply across the empire and that final judgment in disputes would rest with the emperor and his court. New rulers would continue to be formally invested by the emperor as feudal lords. However, despite these powers, the emperor could no longer rule the empire as a centralized authority. The empire had essentially become a loosely bound federation. The Swiss Confederation was formally recognized as independent and exempt from imperial authority.
The Habsburg dynasty of Austria retained its inheritance. They continued to hold the thrones of Austria, Bohemia, and Hungary. The Habsburgs were also successful in re-establishing Catholicism in parts of Bohemia and Austria.
Sweden, after prolonged warfare, secured several rewards and guarantees. It received half of Pomerania and the important commercial center of Stettin, along with the territory of Bremen. This established Swedish dominance from the Elbe River to Finland along the southern Baltic Sea. By acquiring territory within the empire, Sweden also gained the right to participate in the imperial Diet.
France’s main goal was to defeat the Habsburgs, with whom it had long-standing conflicts, and to expand its eastern borders. Through the Westphalian treaty, France received several militarily significant regions near the Alps. Additionally, the cities of Metz, Toul, and Verdun came under French control.
The treaty also resolved the conflict between Spain and the Dutch Republic (United Provinces). The independence of the United Provinces was formally recognized, and trade relations between them and Spain were restored. It was also declared that Spain would no longer act as the protector of the Catholic community in the Netherlands.
The Peace of Westphalia brought an end to Europe's long era of war. From the early 16th century, religion had played a pivotal role in civil and international conflicts. However, the Thirty Years' War revealed that religion was often just a façade—the real drivers were socio-economic interests. Both France and the Habsburgs of Spain and Austria were Catholic, yet Catholic France allied with Protestant Sweden. Cardinal Richelieu of France even supported German Protestants. In this way, the distinction between religion and politics became increasingly clear, paving the way for secularism in European politics.
Historians believe that the Peace of Westphalia marked the birth of the modern state system in Europe. It was based on the new application of international law and diplomacy. Although this trend had begun in the 15th century with the city-states of Italy and had been adopted by Spain and Portugal in the 16th century, the dominance of the Holy Roman Empire had hindered the formation of an order based on equality among sovereign states. After the Thirty Years' War, the empire was reduced in status to the level of other national monarchies, making it possible to establish a new international order based on the equality of independent, sovereign states. This did not mean that large and small states were equal in power, but in principle, all states were recognized as having equal status. From this point onward, diplomats and ambassadors would represent sovereign powers and manage international relations. Westphalia pointed the way toward this new system.
Another significant aspect of the Peace of Westphalia was its establishment of religious pluralism in Europe through peaceful religious settlements. It marked the end of centralized religious culture and legitimized the social transformations already underway. Individual freedom of worship was acknowledged, paving the way for a more open and liberal European society.
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