চোলদের নৌসাম্রাজ্য
The Naval Empire of the Cholas
Between the 9th and 12th centuries CE, one of the most prominent rising powers in India was the Chola kingdom. The Chola dynasty managed to extend its dominance across vast regions of South India. They successfully conquered Sri Lanka and the Maldives in the south. Their empire also extended into Odisha and the Tungabhadra doab. A remarkable feature of the Chola rulers was their powerful navy, through which they established control over several Southeast Asian countries.
The Cholas were an ancient dynasty from the southern part of the Indian subcontinent. References to the Cholas can be found in Ashokan inscriptions and in ancient Sangam literature. Initially, the Cholas served as vassal rulers under the Pallavas, Chalukyas, and Rashtrakutas. Eventually, they were able to establish an independent and sovereign state, extending from the Krishna-Tungabhadra doab in the north to the southern coastal regions.
One of the most distinctive features of Chola rule was their maritime dominance. The Chola rulers exerted influence over the Indian Ocean islands such as the Maldives, Lakshadweep, and Sri Lanka, as well as parts of Southeast Asia including Malaya, Sumatra, Java, and Indochina. They also established political relations with Burma. The Chola military, built to safeguard their naval empire and colonial dominance, was unmatched by any other power in Indian history.
Rajaraja Chola and Rajendra Chola were the chief architects of the Chola naval expansion. Rajaraja transformed a small kingdom into a vast empire and created an enormous navy, unparalleled in Indian history. He defeated the Ganga and Chalukya powers, and the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi submitted to Chola authority. He annexed the distant Pandya and Kerala kingdoms into his empire. At that time, the maritime environment surrounding South India was not secure. Arab traders had commercial bases in the Malabar region, the Maldives, and Sri Lanka, and conducted trade across the Indian Ocean, connecting the western and eastern coasts of India and Southeast Asia. The Cholas aimed to undermine the naval-commercial dominance of these Arab merchants. Historian Romila Thapar believes that the invasions of the Pandya and Kerala regions were driven by broader maritime and colonial interests. The conquest of Kerala helped the Cholas check Arab merchant infiltration.
Rajaraja led campaigns along the South Indian coast and nearby islands. He captured the Maldives and the neighboring Lakshadweep islands. He also launched a direct assault on Sri Lanka, destroying its capital, Anuradhapura. Northern Sri Lanka was annexed into the Chola Empire.
Rajendra Chola, Rajaraja's son, followed his father’s policies. He annexed parts of Sri Lanka that had not been conquered by Rajaraja. The Sinhalese king Mahendra and his queen were captured. However, the Chola rule in Sri Lanka did not last long, as resistance was led by Mahendra’s son in southern Sri Lanka. Rajendra maintained dominance over the Pandya and Kerala regions and dismantled the Arab trading monopoly in these areas. He appointed a provincial governor in Madurai to administer the Pandya and Kerala regions.
A large naval expedition was sent against the Srivijaya kingdom in Southeast Asia. This Buddhist kingdom, ruled by the Sailendra dynasty, included Malaya, Sumatra, Java, and other islands. The Srivijaya rulers maintained relations with the Cholas and acted as intermediaries in trade between China and South India. The conflict with Srivijaya was primarily rooted in trade competition involving Arab, Indian, and Southeast Asian merchants. During the 11th century, Chinese emperors showed interest in trade with South India, as evidenced by the Chola state's diplomatic trade missions to China. The attack on Srivijaya was intended to undermine its intermediary role in Sino-Indian trade. The Srivijaya capital was burned, and its king was captured. However, after accepting Chola suzerainty, the defeated king was reinstated. Inscriptions reveal that Rajendra Chola also extended his influence into the Kambuja (Cambodia) kingdom of Indochina.
It is important to note that the Chola colonial empire was not free from conflict. Rajendra Chola could not suppress resistance in southern Sri Lanka. The Pandya and Kerala kingdoms conspired with Sri Lanka to challenge Chola rule. Later Chola kings like Rajadhiraja and Veera Rajendra attempted to reconquer Sri Lanka and Srivijaya, but were unsuccessful. Srivijaya effectively regained independence. However, Tamil inscriptions found there indicate that trade and cultural ties remained intact. Tamil merchants established colonies and conducted trade in these regions.
The Chola naval empire held immense political significance. Establishing a naval empire in the Indian Ocean ensured the political and military security of the Chola state. Arab influence in Malabar, Sri Lanka, and Southeast Asia was effectively challenged. Later, Chola kings also understood the importance of trade. Kulottunga I even proposed the abolition of customs duties to encourage foreign merchants. He established diplomatic relations with Burma and built commercial links with China. Under Kulottunga I, the port of Cholapattinam (present-day Visakhapatnam) emerged as a major harbor.
These commercial connections also fostered cultural exchanges with Sri Lanka, Srivijaya, and Indochina. Indian religion, philosophy, literature, and art influenced the life and culture of these regions—an influence that endures to this day. The Borobudur temple in Java and Angkor Wat in Cambodia still reflect the imprint of Indian civilization.
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