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The Position of Women in the Gupta Era
The Gupta era is often referred to as the Golden Age of India. The prosperity of any civilization greatly depends on the status of women within that society. Therefore, it is worth discussing the position of women in the Gupta era and how high it was during the imagined Golden Age. Contemporary scriptures, descriptions by Xuanzang, and especially Vatsyayana's Kamasutra offer valuable insights in this regard.
In the Gupta era, women's study of the Vedas was generally prohibited. However, there were no restrictions on the education of women from respectable families. Vatsyayana provided a list of educational subjects for ordinary women, which included recitation of poetry, completion of verses, synonyms, and knowledge of figures of speech and prosody. These were referred to as Angavidya (the knowledge of the arts). It was important for the wives of Nagarakas to possess knowledge of mathematics. In addition, they were required to be skilled in music, dance, painting, and other artistic pursuits. Some well-known educated women include Rajyashree, Anusuya, Malavika, Sagarika, Aranyaka, and Malati. Rajyashree was skilled in dance, singing, and painting. In Amarakosa, women teachers were referred to as Upadhyaya and Acharya.
Regarding the age gap in marriage, there is doubt as to whether the provisions of Manu Smriti were followed in reality during this time. According to the Kamasutra, a wife should be no more than three years younger than her husband. Despite following Manu's teachings, Vatsyayana deviated from these guidelines due to real-world circumstances. He opposed Anuloma (marriage of a higher caste man with a lower caste woman) and Pratiloma (marriage of a lower caste man with a higher caste woman) marriages, but he did sanction Anuloma in cases of sexual relations. He did not deny love marriages, but he had some cautionary advice for women regarding the selection of their husbands. Most importantly, he was the first to view sexuality from a woman's perspective. He did not consider a woman's consent in adultery or extramarital affairs as immoral or against religion.
The ideal wife described in Vatsyayana's Kamasutra echoes the patriarchal values of smriti texts. According to him, the ideal wife would be a housekeeper, secretary, and beloved of her husband. She should be his companion in religious duties and should avoid associating with women of questionable repute. She should treat her husband's family, relatives, friends, servants, co-wives with kindness and respect. If the husband goes abroad, she must refrain from wearing ornaments and expensive clothes and perform religious rites and festivals. During his absence, she must carry out her household duties, including agriculture, animal husbandry, and even storekeeping.
While there were a few cases of infamous women (prostitutes) in society, Vatsyayana showed some affectionate tolerance when writing about them. He even dedicated a chapter to the techniques of how men could engage in adulterous relations with married women. According to smriti texts, the purification process for a prostitute included separation and a restricted diet. If she did not reform and plotted to kill her husband, she was to be abandoned.
Although there were some scattered incidents of Sati (widow burning), widows generally led normal lives. Not every widow was a devoted Brahmacharini (celibate woman). The scriptural authorities were quite vocal about the inheritance rights of widows, especially concerning the property of deceased husbands. Widow remarriage was neither completely uncommon nor universally accepted. Amarakosa even mentions that a remarried widow (Punarbhu) could become the chief wife of her husband. However, Vatsyayana preferred to view remarried widows as "attractive concubines" rather than wives.
In the Gupta era, there was widespread demand and popularity for courtesans in society. Vatsyayana divided courtesans into two categories: first, teacher courtesans (who were skilled in all 64 arts) who catered mostly to upper-class clients, and second, ordinary courtesans, or prostitutes. He provided several professional guidelines for courtesans, such as: not deviating from their goal of earning money, not falling in love, and being well-versed in state laws. Some famous courtesans of the era, according to literary sources, were Vasantasena, Ragmanjuri, and Chandrasena. The tradition of Devadasis (temple dancers) began during the Gupta period.
Women had the right to inherit paternal property. At the time of marriage, brothers were expected to give their sisters one-fourth of their share according to the scriptures. Women's rights over their dowries were upheld, and upon their death, their daughters inherited them. Widows' rights to property were also discussed by the scriptural authorities.
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