প্রাচীন ভারতে নারীর অবস্থান
যেকোনো সমাজের উৎকর্ষতা অনেকটাই নির্ভর করে সেই সমাজের নারীর অবস্থার ওপর। এক সময় মনে করা হত প্রাচীন ভারতে নারীর অবস্থান ছিল অতি উচ্চ। তুর্কিদের আগমনের পর থেকে নারীর অবস্থান নিম্নগামী হয় ক্রমশ। অবশ্য আধুনিক গবেষণায় এই মত বাতিল হয়েছে । ঋক বৈদিক যুগে নারীর মর্যাদা ছিল যতটা উপরে পরবর্তী বৈদিক যুগে কৃষিনির্ভর জটিল সমাজব্যবস্থা চালু হবার সাথে সাথে নারীর অবস্থান ক্রমশ নিম্নগামী হয় এবং পরবর্তীকালে ইতিহাসের গতিধারায় নারীর বৈচিত্র্যপূর্ণ অবস্থান লক্ষ্য করা যায়।
ঋকবেদে নারী
ঋক বৈদিক সমাজ ছিল পিতৃতান্ত্রিক। তাই পুত্র সন্তান ছিল অধিক কাম্য। তবে কন্যা সন্তান একেবারে অবহেলিত ছিল না। মেয়েরা শিক্ষা গ্রহণের সুযোগ পেত। অপালা, ঘোষা, সূর্য্যা, বিশ্ববারা প্রমুখ নারী বেদের সূত্র রচনা করেছিলেন। এরা পরিচিতা ছিলেন ব্রহ্মবাদীনী নামে। নারীরা বিদথ- এর অধিবেশনে যোগ দিতে পারতেন, যুদ্ধে অংশ নিতে পারতেন। সুকুমারী ভট্টাচার্য দেখিয়েছেন যে, যেসব নারী অবিবাহিতা থেকে যেতেন তারা জরৎকুমারী নামে পরিচিত হতেন। ঋকবেদে বলা হয়েছে নারীর বিবাহ হত তারা বিবাহ যোগ্যা হলে এবং অভিভাবকের নিয়ন্ত্রণ ছিল না তেমন। একটি মেলার কথা জানা যায় যেখানে বিবাহযোগ্য নরনারী মিলিত হতেন এবং একে অপরের সঙ্গী বা সঙ্গিনী নির্বাচন করতেন। শ্বশুরবাড়িতে নববধূ পেতেন সম্রাজ্ঞীর মর্যাদা। নারী সেখানে পতির সঙ্গে যজ্ঞে অংশ নিতে পারতেন। সতীদাহ ছিল না সে যুগে। স্বামীর মৃত্যুর পর স্ত্রী প্রতীকীভাবে স্বামীর চিতায় শুয়ে পড়তেন; তার দেবর তাকে তুলে নিয়ে আসতেন চিতা থেকে। পুত্রহীনা বিধবা নারী পুত্রসন্তান না হওয়া পর্যন্ত তার দেবরের সঙ্গে সহবাস করতে পারতেন। এটির ছিল নিয়োগ প্রথা। এটি বিধবার পুনর্বিবাহ নয়।
পরবর্তী বেদে নারী
মহাজনপদের সময়ে নারীর অবস্থান
মৌর্য যুগে নারীর অবস্থান
মৌর্যত্তর পর্বে নারী অবস্থান
গুপ্ত যুগে নারীদের অবস্থা
The Position of Women in Ancient India
The prosperity of any society largely depends on the status of women in that society. It was once believed that the status of women in ancient India was very high. However, after the arrival of the Turks, the position of women gradually declined. Modern research, however, has rejected this view. During the Rig Vedic period, women's dignity was high, but as the agrarian-based complex societal structure began in the later Vedic period, the position of women gradually deteriorated. Subsequently, diverse positions of women can be seen in the course of history.
Women in the Rigveda
The Rigvedic society was patriarchal, so male children were more desired. However, female children were not entirely neglected. Girls were given the opportunity to receive education. Women like Apala, Ghosha, Surya, and Vishwabara were instrumental in composing the hymns of the Vedas. They were known as Brahmavadinis. Women could join Vedic assemblies and participate in wars. Sukumari Bhattacharya has shown that women who remained unmarried were known as Jaratkumari. According to the Rigveda, women could marry when they were of marriageable age, and there was no strict control from guardians. It is mentioned that there was a gathering where marriageable men and women met and selected partners. Newlywed women enjoyed the status of queens in their in-laws' homes. Women could participate in rituals with their husbands. Sati was not practiced during that time. After the husband's death, the wife would symbolically lie on the husband's pyre; her brother-in-law would lift her from the pyre. A childless widow could live with her brother-in-law until she bore a son. This was a system of appointment, not remarriage.
Women in Later Vedic Texts
In the later Vedic period, the situation began to change. With the rise of an agrarian economy, private property, and the caste system, control over women increased. Now, it was said that the birth of a daughter brought sorrow to the family. Women were considered less feminine if they received education, so they had to marry before reaching a certain age. Thus, the control over women became more pronounced. The ideal of women was to be obedient to their husbands and follow their commands. The husband's control over a woman's body was established. Women who were once compared to queens in the Rigveda were now reduced to the status of "pretinis." The presence of polygamy and co-wives further diminished the respect for women. In literature, the little respect that women enjoyed was mainly as mothers of sons. It was stated in the scriptures that a woman who only bore daughters could be abandoned within ten years, and a woman who bore only dead children could be abandoned after twelve years. A woman who spoke disrespectfully to her husband could be abandoned immediately. Thus, women were reduced to mere objects of pleasure and machines for procreation.
Women During the Mahajanapadas Period
The emergence of an agrarian-based complex society led to a further decline in the social position of women. In the Brahmanical society of the sixteen Mahajanapadas, it was stated that a woman's primary goal was marriage. Strict rules were imposed on widows. The scriptures stated that women were not fit for independence, and thus, they remained under the control of their fathers as unmarried girls, under their husbands in their youth, and under their sons' protection in old age. On the other hand, the position of women among the Buddhists was somewhat better. Women could join the Buddhist Sangha. Buddha had no objection to the donations of courtesans like Amrapali. However, regarding marriage laws and husband-wife relations, Buddha's teachings were similar to Brahmanical customs.
Women's Position in the Maurya Period
During Ashoka's reign, there is mention of high-ranking female officials called Mahamatras. However, it cannot be said that women's social status had reached a very high point. A woman's identity was still defined by her father, husband, or son. Charubaki is known as Ashoka's second wife. However, there were a few exceptions in the Mauryan period, as proposed by Kautilya. First, a woman had the right to divorce, and second, women were considered ideal candidates for espionage work. Kautilya also laid down rules for employing women workers in various jobs. Megasthenes mentioned that among Chandragupta's personal bodyguards, many were women. In society, there were also courtesans. Kautilya viewed them as tools for entertainment and proposed appointing a supervisor to control them.
Women's Position After the Mauryan Period
The primary sources to understand women's position in the post-Mauryan period are the Ramayana and Mahabharata. These epics have no shortage of powerful women, such as Draupadi, the favorite wife of the Pandavas. She is described as a dignified figure, both as a caregiver like a grandmother and a revered figure like a mother. However, when Yudhishthira stakes Draupadi in a game of dice, it gives an insight into the mentality of Kshatriya families regarding women. Draupadi in the Mahabharata represents the ideal woman; she does not eat excessively, does not rest too much, does not dress up excessively, and does not quarrel with her mother-in-law. She remains obedient and submissive. Thus, self-restraint, self-sacrifice, and submission were considered the ideal qualities for women. On the other hand, Gandhari's rebellious character is also visible as she scolds her blind husband Dhritarashtra and curses Krishna. In the Ramayana, the ideal husband, Ram, asks his wife Sita to undergo a trial by fire to prove her purity. One of Ram's actions is even worse, as he states that after Sita returns from being kidnapped by Ravana, he has no desire to enjoy her company. To him, Sita is like a vessel licked by a dog. In other words, Sita is seen only as an object of pleasure. If women in royal families were treated like this, the plight of common women can be easily imagined.
In the discussed period, there are mentions of some cases of women's empowerment, such as women being named as donors in certain donations. In a patriarchal society, women were not seen as producers of wealth, so where did this wealth come from? It is likely that the wealth came from the wife’s dowry.
The Position of Women During the Gupta Period
In the Gupta period, women's study of the Vedas was generally prohibited. However, girls from noble families were not restricted from receiving education. Vatsayana provides a list of subjects for the education of ordinary women, which included poetry recitation, learning synonyms, understanding ornamentation and meter, and knowledge of rhythm. These were called "angavidya" (arts). The wives of the nagaraka (city dwellers) were expected to have knowledge of mathematics. They also had to be skilled in music, dance, and painting. Some educated women from this period include Rajyashri, Anusaya, Malvika, Sagarika, Aranyaka, and Malati. Rajyashri was skilled in dance, music, and painting. The Amarakosha refers to women teachers as upadhyaya and acharya.
Doubts exist about whether the laws regarding age differences in marriage as stated by Manu were strictly followed during this period. According to the Kamasutra, the wife should be three years younger than her husband. Despite being a follower of Manu, Vatsayana deviates from Manu’s rules in practical terms. He opposed the practice of hypergamous and hypergamous marriages but legitimized hypergamous unions in terms of mere enjoyment. Vatsayana did not deny love marriages but gave certain warnings to women regarding the choice of a husband. Most importantly, he was the first to view sexuality from a woman’s perspective. He did not consider women’s consent or "deviant behavior" in adultery as against religious duties.
The ideal wife described in Vatsayana's Kamasutra is a reflection of the patriarchal norms in Hindu scriptures. According to him, the ideal wife would be a housewife, secretary, and lover; she would be the companion of her husband on the path of virtue and would avoid associating with women of questionable character, even if her husband did not object. She would maintain kind and respectful relations with her husband’s relatives, friends, family, servants, and co-wives. If her husband went abroad, she would abandon ornaments and expensive clothing and focus on religious observances. During this time, a housewife was also expected to manage the household chores, agriculture, animal husbandry, and even the storeroom.
Though rare, there were instances of courtesans in society. Vatsayana, while writing about them, showed a certain level of tolerance. He added a chapter on how married women should engage with courtesans. In the scriptures, however, the purification method for adulterous women involved separation and a restricted diet. If the woman did not reform and conspired to kill her husband, she could be abandoned.
Though there were a few instances of Sati, widows generally led ordinary lives. Not all of them were devoted to Brahmacharinis. Scholars of the scriptures were vocal about the widow's share in her husband's property. Widow remarriage was neither common nor uncommon. The Amarakosha mentions a remarried widow (Punarbhū) who became the chief wife. However, Vatsayana preferred viewing remarried women as "attractive courtesans."
In the Gupta period, there was a large demand and popularity for courtesans. Vatsayana divided courtesans into two categories: one, the shikshika (teaching) courtesans who were skilled in 64 arts and whose clientele were mainly from the upper classes, and two, the ordinary courtesans or veshya. Vatsayana gave professional advice to courtesans, such as not deviating from the purpose of earning money, not falling in love, and being aware of state laws. According to literary sources, some well-known courtesans were Vasantsena, Ragmanjari, and Chandrasena. It was during the Gupta period that the practice of Devadasi (temple dancers) began to emerge.
Women had the right to paternal property. At the time of marriage, brothers were required to give one-fourth of their share to their sisters according to the scriptures. Women’s right to their dowries remained in effect, and after their death, their daughters would inherit it. The scholars of the scriptures also made noise about widows’ right to property.
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