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Ancient Athenian Philosophy
Ancient Greek culture's most outstanding element was philosophy, which laid the foundation for Western philosophy's subsequent development. The three greatest philosophers of that era were Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle.
Sophist Philosophy
Sophist philosophy had a significant influence on ancient Greek thought. The term "Sophist" referred to skilled and knowledgeable individuals whose aim was to educate people in various fields such as history, geography, anthropology, mathematics, Ionian science, and linguistics. They primarily focused on grooming the young generation from wealthy families for success. However, their approach was not holistic. The core of Sophist philosophy and education was the dichotomy between Nomos (law) and Physis (nature). Nomos referred to state laws, created by humans and thus relative and changeable. Physis refers to the eternal or the absolute. Sophist philosophers drew a clear line between the two, suggesting that state laws, being artificially imposed, could be opposed, but the laws of nature could not be denied. This approach of the Sophists opened the path for subversive thoughts against the state. Sophist philosophers were divided into two groups: the older Sophists, including Protagoras, Gorgias, Hippias, and Antiphon, and the younger Sophists, including Alcidamas, Lycophron, Polus, and Critias. Their central tenet was absolute relativism, which Socrates fiercely criticized.
Socrates
Socrates himself did not write anything, so historians have relied on three sources to understand his teachings and philosophy: Aristophanes' "The Clouds," Xenophon's "Memorabilia," and Plato's "Dialogues." Due to this reliance on others' writings, there is some uncertainty about Socrates' exact philosophy. Nonetheless, two of his contributions to philosophy are undeniable: (1) the application of dialectical reasoning in philosophical inquiry and (2) the use of dialectical analysis in explaining moral principles. His analysis was filled with irony. He wandered around, acknowledging his ignorance, and asked questions to expose the flaws in others' responses. Socrates opposed Athenian democracy and supported the aristocracy. Accused of corrupting the youth and impiety, he was sentenced to death by the Heliaea, refusing the chance to escape, and accepted his fate by drinking hemlock.
Plato
Plato, one of the greatest classical Greek philosophers, was a disciple of Socrates. His writings were in the form of dialogues. Significant works from his early period include "Apology of Socrates," "Protagoras," "Crito," and the first book of "Republic." Important works from his middle period include "Meno" and "Gorgias," and from his late period include "Symposium" and the remaining books of "Republic." Plato was an idealist and took this philosophy to great heights. In his later years, he wrote about laws. Initially, like Socrates, he did not believe in democratic governance and supported oligarchic rule. However, he later introduced the concept of the "philosopher-king." After traveling to various countries, he returned to Athens in 387 BCE and established an academy, which produced many notable scholars, including Aristotle. Plato's "Republic" and "Laws" laid the foundation for modern political science.
Aristotle
Aristotle, considered the greatest philosopher of ancient Greece, excelled in various branches of knowledge and education. He spent 18 years at Plato's Academy and later established a settlement with the academy's alumni. Hermias, an enlightened ruler of Anatolia, patronized this philosophical group. Aristotle was the tutor of Alexander, son of King Philip of Macedon. He authored numerous works, making it challenging to chronologically categorize them. His writings underscored the intrinsic connection between the universe and humanity. His creative works are primarily divided into eight categories: (1) logic, (2) philosophy of nature, (3) psychology, (4) biology, (5) metaphysics, (6) ethics, (7) politics and economics, and (8) rhetoric and poetics. Among his political writings, "Politics" is the most noteworthy, where he expressed his views on the ideal state, considering oligarchy as the realistic form of governance. He distinguished between philosophy and science and further differentiated between various scientific branches. After Alexander's death, the Athenian government brought charges against Aristotle, prompting him to go into voluntary exile to avoid the fate of Socrates. He died a year later in 322 BCE at the age of 62.
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