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Third Urbanization in India
The Indian subcontinent witnessed its first urbanization during the Chalcolithic-Bronze Age. The Harappan Civilization that developed in north-western India was urban in nature. Archaeologists have so far discovered around 1,400 urban centres of this civilization. After the decline of the Harappan Civilization, the settlements established by the Aryans were rural and pastoral in nature. It took almost a thousand years for a second wave of urbanization to occur, driven by the transition from pastoralism to agriculture and the resulting agricultural surplus. This second phase of urbanization emerged in the sixth century BCE, during the time of the Mahajanapadas. The urbanization that occurred during the early medieval period is referred to as the third urbanization.
Professor R.S. Sharma, in his book Urban Decay, presented a picture of urban decline in the early medieval period. He argued that after 300 CE, most cities began to decline, with only a few surviving till around 600 CE, after which they too faced ruin. This situation, according to him, persisted until 1000 CE. Sharma attributed this to the rise of the feudal system due to the agrahara land grants during the later Gupta period, which prioritized agriculture over trade and industry. As a result, monetary economy declined, leading to the downfall of older cities and the resurgence of a rural, closed economy.
While this theory of urban decline during the period is plausible, Arab travellers’ accounts provide little indication of such a collapse in urban economy. Writers such as Sulaiman, Ibn Battuta, Ibn Khordadbeh, Al-Masudi, and Al-Idrisi mention vibrant trade relations between Arab merchants and India. Their writings refer to the continued existence of towns and ports along the coasts of Gujarat, Konkan, and Malabar. Al-Masudi even noted that about 10,000 Muslim traders resided in the Chola empire. This is supported by inscriptions from the Rashtrakuta period. Letters from Jewish merchants also reveal regular trade between India and Alexandria. In such a context of active maritime trade, Sharma’s theory of complete urban collapse appears less convincing.
Historian B.D. Chattopadhyaya criticized Sharma’s views. He argued that urban decline between 300 and 1000 CE was not universal. While some cities did decay, others maintained their vitality. Archaeological evidence supports this. Cities like Ahichhatra (in Bareilly district), the old fort in Delhi, Atranjikhera in Uttar Pradesh, Rajghat near Varanasi, and Chirand in Bihar continued to show urban life.
In the Gangetic plains, Tattanandapur (near modern Bulandshahr) was a significant urban centre, as described in inscriptions with references to roads, markets, shops, houses, and pathways. Excavations at Ahār also reveal urban features. The city of Siyadoni under the Pratihara Empire was recognized as a city inhabited by artisans and traders, especially salt merchants, and had both hattas (markets) and mandapikas (marketplaces). Besides being a commercial hub, Siyadoni was also a political-administrative centre.
The city of Gopadri in the Gurjara-Pratihara territory had markets and was likely fortified, hence referred to as a killa (fort) and administered by a kottapala (fort official), indicating military importance. B.D. Chattopadhyaya also mentioned Prithudaka as another city in the Gurjara region, known for horse trade.
In Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh, a 10th-century inscription of Lakshmana Raja refers to the term purapattana (urban settlement). At Bilhari, inscriptions mention pattana mandapikas, indicating the beginnings of urbanization in the Kalachuri kingdom. Chattopadhyaya also pointed out that Nadol in Rajasthan was a trade hub for 12 surrounding villages and also a political centre of the Chahmanas.
In the south, prosperous agriculture and trade accelerated urbanization. Venugrama (Belgaum) in Karnataka attracted merchants. A 1204 CE inscription from northern Karnataka shows that around 70 nearby villages traded with Venugrama. Chattopadhyaya’s research highlights the existence of Mamallapuram in the Chola region. Other urban centres like Kuramukku-Palaiyarai, mentioned in Champakalakshmi's work, illustrate efforts to interpret South Indian urbanization in light of socio-economic and political changes.
According to Champakalakshmi, inscriptions show that during the 6th–7th century under the Pallavas and Pandyas, and especially from the 9th century under the Cholas, the Kaveri valley saw a massive agricultural expansion. The brahmadeya and devadana lands formed distinct settlements, at the core of which stood a town that controlled the commercial activities of the surrounding agrahara region. This led to the development of urban centres such as:
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Tanjore (Chola capital),
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Kaveripattinam/Puhar (port city),
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Rajarajachaturvedimangalam and Cherabanmahadevi in the Tamraparni valley.
Two important temple towns, Kanchipuram and Madurai, also continued their urban significance. Under Chola patronage, several other cities emerged, including Gangaikondacholapuram.
From this discussion, it becomes difficult to fully accept Sharma’s urban decay theory. However, it is also evident that third urbanization was fundamentally different from the second phase. It lacked clearly defined centralized urban centres and was more regionally embedded. Most cities of this period developed as local trade hubs, shaped and supported by regional powers and social groups.
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