গুপ্ত অর্থনীতি
কৃষি অর্থনীতি
গুপ্ত অর্থনীতির প্রধান বৈশিষ্ট্য হলো অগ্রহার ব্যবস্থা। অগ্রহার হল ধর্মস্থান বা পুরোহিত সম্প্রদায়ের উদ্দেশ্যে ভূমিদান প্রথা। এই ভূমিদান গুপ্তদের আগে থেকে চালু ছিল। কিন্তু আলোচ্য পর্বে তা ব্যাপক আকার ধারণ করে। দান করার ক্ষেত্রে গুপ্তদের তুলনায় বাকাটকরা অনেকটাই এগিয়ে ছিল। অগ্রহার ব্যবস্থার ব্যাপক প্রচলনের ফলে জমিতে ব্যক্তিমালিকানার প্রসার ঘটেছিল এবং গোষ্ঠী মালিকানা ক্রমশ সংকুচিত হচ্ছিল। একইসাথে এই ব্যবস্থায় ব্রাহ্মণ ও ধর্মীয় প্রতিষ্ঠানগুলি লাভবান হয়েছিল। একটি ধর্মীয় ভূস্বামী গোষ্ঠীর আবির্ভাব ঘটেছিল। রামশরণ শর্মা ও তার অনুগামীরা মনে করেন, অগ্রহার ব্যবস্থা ফলে সমাজে ত্রিস্তরীয় (রাজা, ভূস্বামী ও কৃষক) ভূমিব্যবস্থা তথা সামন্ততন্ত্রের সূচনা হয়েছিল। কৃষক কার্যত ভুমিদাসে পরিণত হয়েছিল। এর ফলে কারিগরি উৎপাদন, বাণিজ্য, মুদ্রা অর্থনীতি ও নগরায়ন বাধাপ্রাপ্ত হয়েছিল। যদিও তার থিসিস নানাভাবে সমালোচিত হয়েছে।কারিগরি উৎপাদন
অর্থনীতির অন্যতম অঙ্গ কারিগরি উৎপাদন। গুপ্তযুগে কৃষিকাজের পাশাপাশি কারিগরি উৎপাদন অব্যাহত ছিল। সমকালীন সাহিত্য, লেখমলা এবং প্রত্নতাত্ত্বিক প্রমান থেকে এবিষয়ে জানা যায়। |
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মাটির পাত্র ছিল অন্যতম নিত্যপ্রয়োজনীয় দ্রব্য। কুম্ভকারদের অস্তিত্বের প্রমাণ কেবল লেখমালায় নয়, রাজঘাট, অহিছত্র প্রভৃতি প্রত্নক্ষেত্র থেকে মৃৎপাত্র পাওয়া গেছে। আরেকটি অত্যাবশকীয় পন্য নুন উৎপাদনের সাক্ষ্য বহন করছে বাকটক লেখগুলি, যেখানে লবনকর ছাড়ের কথা বলা হয়েছে। সূত্রধর এর প্রয়োজনীয়তা সেযুগে অনস্বীকার্য। তেল উৎপাদনের কথা আছে স্কন্দগুপ্তের সময়ের ইন্দ্রপুর তাম্রশাসনে।প্রাচীন ভারতের অন্যতম শিল্প বস্ত্রশিল্প। অমরকোষে দামি ও মোটা দুধরনের কাপড় তৈরির কথা আছে। রেশম শিল্পীদের গোষ্ঠীর বর্ণনা আছে মান্দাসোর লিপিতে। কাথিয়াবাড়ে নীল উৎপাদকদের উপর নীলের গামলা প্রতি রাজস্ব আদায় করা হতো। ৫৯২ খ্রি: একটি লেখতে কাপড় রং করার কারিগর বা ছিম্পক এবং সুরা প্রস্তুতকারক বা কল্লার এর উল্লেখ রয়েছে। রাজদরবারে বা প্রশাসনিক দপ্তরে কায়স্থদের উপস্থিতি গুরুত্বপূর্ণ; কারণ ভূমিদানের দলিলপত্র তাদের ছাড়া সম্ভব হত না। আলোচ্য পর্বে বৈদ্য বা চিকিৎসকের গুরুত্ব যে বাড়ছিল, তার প্রমান সুশ্রুতসংহিতা।
ব্যবসা বাণিজ্য
কারিগর ও বণিক সংগঠন
গুপ্ত যুগে মুদ্রা
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| সমুদ্রগুপ্তের মুদ্রা |
Gupta Economy
The Gupta dynasty ruled from 319-320 CE to around 550 or 570 CE. During this time, the Vakataka and Kadamba rulers reigned in South India. Hence, the Gupta period generally spans from the early 4th century to the late 6th century. Due to remarkable cultural advancements, many historians have referred to the Gupta era as a "Golden Age." One of the primary reasons for this cultural progress was a stable economy.
Agricultural Economy
A key feature of the Gupta economy was the agrahara system, a land grant practice where land was donated to religious institutions or priestly communities. Although this practice existed before the Guptas, it became more widespread during their rule. Compared to the Guptas, the Vakatakas were even more extensive in granting lands. The widespread practice of land grants led to an increase in private land ownership and a decline in communal land holdings. As a result, Brahmins and religious institutions benefited significantly, leading to the emergence of a religious landlord class.
Historian R.S. Sharma and his followers argue that the agrahara system contributed to the development of a three-tiered land ownership structure consisting of kings, landlords, and peasants, thereby laying the foundation for feudalism. Peasants, in effect, became serfs, which hindered technological production, trade, currency economy, and urbanization. However, this thesis has faced criticism from various scholars.
The crops cultivated during this period can be identified from contemporary texts. Rice was the principal crop, and Kalidasa mentioned the fame of Bengal's rice. Chinese traveler Xuanzang (Hiuen Tsang) recorded that the aromatic rice of Magadha was highly favored by the elite. The climate of Haryana was also suitable for agricultural production. Other sources mention crops such as sugarcane (as per Kalidasa), cotton, sesame, mustard, indigo (as per Amarakosha), and spices like black pepper, cardamom, and betel nut in South India. Varahamihira mentioned saffron cultivation in Kashmir.
Land classification was well understood in this period. The Amarakosha mentions at least 12 types of land, whereas inscriptions list six categories:
- Kshetra – Cultivable land
- Aprahata – Uncultivated land
- Khila-Kshetra – Fallow land
- Aprada – Undistributed land
- Apratikara – Revenue-free land
- Aranya – Forest land
Since land was transferable, proper measurement systems were in place. Copper plate inscriptions mention measurement units such as adhavapa, dronavapa, kulyavapa, and pataka. In the Vakataka region, nivartana was a land measurement unit, while in the Maitraka region, padavarta was used. In Bengal, two types of reeds were used for measuring land. All land transactions, whether through purchase or donation, were recorded in copper plate grants.
Irrigation
Irrigation was an essential aspect of Gupta agriculture. Contemporary inscriptions frequently mention tadaga (ponds). Small-scale irrigation projects were initiated by individuals or communities, while large-scale projects were sometimes state-sponsored.
- Vakataka king Prithivisena II built a massive reservoir called Prithivisamudra.
- Kadamba ruler Kakusthavarman also took similar initiatives.
- Skandagupta renovated the Sudarsana Lake, originally built during the Mauryan period.
- A high-ranking Vakataka official constructed another Sudarsana Lake in Maharashtra.
Thus, while agriculture flourished, there is no evidence of improvement in the peasants’ conditions. On the contrary, the expansion of private land ownership and rigid caste structure likely worsened their situation.
Craft Production
Alongside agriculture, craft production continued in the Gupta era. Contemporary literature, inscriptions, and archaeological findings provide insights into this sector.
Delhi Iron Pillar
One of the finest examples of Gupta craftsmanship is the Delhi Iron Pillar, located near the Qutub Minar. Built in the 4th-5th century CE, this iron pillar has not rusted, showcasing the advanced metallurgical skills of the period.
Gupta-era texts also mention settlements of metalworkers. The Vakataka inscriptions refer to a place called Lohanagara, which historian Krishnamohan Shrimali identifies as a blacksmiths’ village. Other inscriptions mention villages named Kamsakaraka (for bronze workers) and Suvarnakaraka (for goldsmiths).
Pottery and Other Industries
Pottery was an essential industry. Evidence of potters (kumbhakaras) comes from both inscriptions and excavations at sites like Rajghat and Ahichhatra. The Vakataka inscriptions also mention salt production, with references to salt tax exemptions. The importance of carpenters (sutradharas) and oil producers (tailikas) is evident in inscriptions from the reign of Skandagupta.
The textile industry was another major sector. Amarakosha mentions both fine and coarse fabrics. Mandasor inscriptions describe silk-weaving communities. In Kathiyavad, indigo producers were taxed per vat. A 592 CE inscription refers to dyers (chhipaka) and wine-makers (kallara).
The presence of scribes (kayasthas) in administrative offices was crucial, as they were responsible for drafting land grants. The Sushruta Samhita also indicates the increasing importance of physicians (vaidyas).
Trade and Commerce
Kalidasa’s works mention bipani (shops) and apanamarga (market streets lined with shops). Amarakosha refers to buying and selling activities, and inscriptions mention merchant guilds (shreshthis and sarthavaha traders) who traveled in caravans for long-distance trade. These sources indicate a thriving internal trade network.
Interestingly, by this period, caste restrictions on trade were breaking down. Even Brahmins and Kshatriyas engaged in commerce. The protagonist of Mrichhakatika, Charudatta, was born a Brahmin but became a merchant (viprasartha). Similarly, a 466 CE inscription records that two brothers who donated to a Surya temple in Indrapura were labeled as Kshatriya-merchants.
However, external trade, which had flourished in the 3rd century CE, declined during this period. The fall of the Roman Empire reduced demand for luxury goods, and Huna invasions disrupted trade routes. Nevertheless, international trade did not completely cease.
- Byzantine coins from the 5th-6th century CE indicate ongoing trade with West Asia and the Middle East.
- Trade with Southeast Asia and Sri Lanka continued via Tamralipti and Kaveripattinam ports.
Merchant and Artisan Guilds
Like in earlier times, merchants and artisans formed guilds (shrenis), whose importance seems to have increased during the Gupta period. Legal texts mention guilds more frequently, and inscriptions reference various guilds:
- Potters’ guild in Nasik (4th century CE)
- Oil producers’ guild near Bulandshahr (Indrapura, 5th century CE)
- Silk weavers’ guild in Mandasor (5th century CE)
- Merchants’ organization in Vaisali
Guilds were led by elders (jyeshthaka, pramukha) and mediators (madhyastha). A new term, karyachintaka, suggests that some guilds had officials to oversee administrative matters. Religious texts emphasize the collective responsibility of guilds, ensuring that the benefits of innovation were shared among members and that any losses caused by individuals were personally compensated.
Gupta Coinage
Coins were an integral part of the commercial economy. The use of currency, which had expanded under the Kushanas, continued under the Guptas.
Gold and Silver Coins
- Gupta rulers issued high-quality gold coins. However, from Skandagupta’s reign, their weight was reduced from 124 grains to 144 grains, and eventually, impurities increased.
- Chandragupta II introduced silver coins in western India, influenced by the Shaka-Kshatrapa coinage. These were mainly used in Gujarat.
Decline of Currency
The Guptas did not emphasize copper coins, which were crucial for daily transactions. R.S. Sharma suggests that coin circulation declined, as noted by Faxian (Fa-Hien), who recorded that daily transactions used cowrie shells instead of coins.
Thus, despite economic growth in certain areas, a decline in monetary circulation and trade disruptions signaled the onset of feudal structures.
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