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The Concept of Untouchability in Ancient India
There is a common tendency in our society to equate untouchability with the caste system. However, there is no causal relationship between the two, nor is untouchability a direct outcome of the caste system. In India's caste structure, differences between groups were acknowledged, and each caste—whether Brahmin or Dom—was considered sovereign within its own domain. Even those in the upper echelons of the caste hierarchy did not share meals with each other. This mindset likely stemmed from complex notions of purity and pollution. Broadly speaking, concepts of purity and impurity were shaped by factors such as death, decay, bodily excretions, disease, and uncleanliness. Since life was regarded as sacred, any profession involving the taking of life, such as hunting, was deemed impure. Dead bodies were inherently considered polluted, and people engaged in occupations like handling animal carcasses, tanning leather, or butchery were viewed as impure. Similarly, a menstruating woman, regardless of how close a relative she might be, was considered impure, and during periods of mourning, it was forbidden to touch a grieving friend.
Origins of the Idea of Untouchability
The concept of untouchability may have originated from the punishment of excommunication for severe crimes. According to Manu's laws, those who committed Brahminicide, stole from a Brahmin, consumed intoxicants, or engaged in other condemned activities were to be socially ostracized. No one was to share meals with them, educate them, employ them in priestly roles, or establish marital relations with them, as they were considered deviants from Vedic Dharma.
Secondly, non-believers (heretics) were sometimes regarded as untouchables. Apararka, citing the Brahmanda Purana, states that Buddhists, Jains, Lokayatas, Kapilists, rebellious Brahmins, and atheists were considered impure, and merely touching them required ritual bathing.
Thirdly, foreigners from different cultures, classified as Mlechhas (barbarians), were also viewed as impure.
Fourthly, communities that engaged in traditionally impure occupations for generations became permanently polluted by association.
Communities Considered Untouchable
Although no community was permanently labeled untouchable from the beginning, in practice, certain Antyaja (outcastes), marginalized groups, and Chandalas fell into the category of untouchables. The first direct reference to untouchability appears in the Vishnu Dharma Sutra, where Chandalas, Mlechhas, and Persians are classified as untouchables.
In a narrow sense, the term Chandala specifically referred to certain mixed-caste groups of low social status. However, in a broader sense, it was used for various marginalized communities. Manu prescribed that Andhras, Medas, Chandalas, and Swapachas should live in remote areas away from villages or cities.
The Chinese traveler Fa-Hien recorded that Chandalas had to strike a staff on the ground when entering markets to alert others of their presence, ensuring people could avoid contact with them. Apararka, citing Harita, mentioned that if one accidentally touched a Rajaka (washerman), Chamar (tanner), Nat (performer), Burud (basket-maker), or Meda (hunter), they had to wash the affected body part. However, Angiras suggested that merely performing Achamana (ritual sipping of water) would suffice. Conversely, the Nityachara Paddhati stated that touching a Chandala or Pukkasa in a purified state required no purification ritual. The oft-quoted "It is a sin to step on a Chandala’s shadow," falsely attributed to Manu, is a complete fabrication.
The Gradual Process of Marginalization
From the discussion above, it is evident that these communities did not become untouchables overnight. The concepts of pollution, impurity, and contamination emerged first, and later, certain occupations became associated with these ideas, leading to their classification as impure. Over time, the people engaged in these professions were socially isolated, and their status hardened into a system of untouchability.
However, the degree of untouchability varied across regions. In Kashmir, though Doms and Chandalas were seen as separate communities, Rajatarangini records that they could serve in the military and that some intelligent individuals from these groups maintained ties with the upper classes. In Bengal, the Demra community was once a renowned warrior caste. In Krittibas' Ramayana, Lord Rama’s friend Guha is depicted as a Chandala, illustrating that social mobility and exceptions existed.
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